IN THIS LESSON

From the ashes of the Hellenistic Age, philosophy embarks on a new journey—one that will shape Rome, and history itself.

Topics discussed:

Philosophy at the end of the Hellenistic Age
Rome’s conquest of the Hellenistic World
Philosophy in the Roman Imperial Era
A Ciceronian review of the schools of thought from Unit II

For lesson transcripts, go to zencastr.com/The-Luxury-of-Virtue.

Focus Questions

What major political and social changes marked the transition from the Hellenistic kingdoms to the Roman Empire? How did these changes affect the role and status of philosophers?
In what ways did Roman rule—characterized by war, slavery, and imperial power—shape the priorities of philosophy in the Roman Imperial Era? Why did many schools begin to focus more on ethics and personal therapy than on metaphysics or politics?
What was the impact of the destruction of philosophical institutions in Athens (e.g., during the Mithridatic Wars) on the spread and character of philosophical inquiry? How did this lead to a more mobile and text-centered approach to philosophy?
Compare how the Stoics, Epicureans, and Aristotelians each define “the good life.” What role do reason, virtue, pleasure, and tranquility play in each school’s account of flourishing? (Note: See the Supplemental Material below.)
The Stoics believed that virtue is sufficient for happiness, while Aristotle held that external goods are also necessary. Which view do you find more persuasive?
The Epicureans emphasized a retreat from public life, while the Stoics (especially Roman Stoics like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius) accepted civic engagement as part of fate. What might explain these differences?
How do the various schools differ in their views on human psychology and emotion? Compare the Stoic view of passions as irrational judgments with Aristotle’s idea of the “Golden Mean.”
What are the different views of the cosmos among the schools? For instance, how do Stoic pantheism, Epicurean materialism, and Platonic idealism each shape their ethical teachings?
Can you provide a criticism for each of the schools of thought discussed?

Glossary

Philosophical Concepts

Hellenistic Philosophy – Refers to the diverse schools of thought that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great, often focused on therapeutic ethics and achieving tranquility in a politically unstable world.

Philosophy as a Way of Life – A hallmark of Hellenistic philosophy, emphasizing the transformation of the self through daily spiritual and rational exercises rather than merely abstract speculation.

Therapeutic Philosophy – A practice of philosophy designed to heal the soul, particularly in response to the trauma and uncertainty of the times. Prominent in Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism.

Protreptic – A style of writing or speech aimed at encouraging others to pursue philosophy and change their way of life.

Civic Religion – The practice of religion in service to the city-state, including festivals and rituals meant to ensure communal well-being and political stability.

Cult of the King – A practice, especially in Hellenistic and Roman contexts, of deifying rulers as a form of political loyalty and religious reverence.

Skeptical Method – A method of philosophical inquiry, emphasized by Academic Skeptics like Cicero, that aims to suspend judgment and examine multiple sides of an argument without committing to a single conclusion.

Key Historical Shifts

Roman Conquest of Greece – A gradual series of military victories by Rome, culminating in the destruction of Corinth in 146 BCE, leading to Greece’s subjugation and the cultural integration of Hellenistic philosophy into Roman society.

Philosophical Diaspora – The spread of philosophical schools beyond Athens after Roman military campaigns (like Sulla’s siege) destroyed the city’s major institutions. Philosophy became more mobile, text-based, and interpretive.

From Dialogue to Commentary – A shift in philosophical pedagogy, from active dialogue to textual commentary, reflecting changes in how philosophy was taught and preserved under Roman rule.

Key People & Schools

Arcesilaus – Head of Plato’s Academy who introduced skepticism into the school around 266 BCE.

Carneades – Academic Skeptic who argued that probability, rather than certainty, is the best guide to action.

Cicero – Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher who adapted Greek philosophy into Latin. A major figure in Academic Skepticism, civic virtue, and Roman republicanism.

Epicureans – Advocated simple living, withdrawal from public life, and the pursuit of ataraxia (tranquility) through pleasure understood as the absence of pain.

Stoics – Emphasized virtue, rationality, and living in harmony with the cosmic order. Roman Stoics often remained politically engaged while practicing emotional detachment.

Peripatetic School – The followers of Aristotle, focused on ethics, politics, and empirical inquiry.

Rogatianus – A Roman Platonist who gave up wealth and status to live a life of philosophical simplicity.

Roman History & Culture

Legions vs. Phalanxes – Roman military formations (legions) were more flexible and effective than the rigid Greek phalanxes, contributing to Rome’s success in conquest.

Roman Republic vs. Empire – The gradual transition from rule by the Senate to one-man rule under Augustus. This shift had deep cultural and philosophical implications.

Roman Pragmatism – A cultural tendency toward practicality and suspicion of abstract theorizing, which sometimes clashed with Greek philosophical traditions.

Cicero’s Contributions

Latinization of Philosophy – Cicero’s translation and adaptation of Greek philosophical terms and ideas into Latin created the foundation for Western philosophical discourse.

Philosophy and Public Life – Cicero believed that philosophy should guide public service and moral action; his own stand against tyranny was rooted in Platonic ideals.

Critique of Bias – Cicero warned against cognitive biases such as confirmation bias and the halo effect. Like Plato, he emphasized that our assumptions often shape our beliefs.

Philosophy as Republic-Strengthening – Despite his skepticism about religious truth claims, Cicero argued that traditional religious practices were essential for social cohesion.

Words You Might Not Know

Protreptic – A form of persuasive rhetoric encouraging philosophical transformation.

Caesaropapism – The merging of religious and political authority, often associated with emperor worship or divine kingship.

Commentary Tradition – A pedagogical approach that became dominant in late antiquity, focusing on interpreting authoritative philosophical texts.

Philosophical Eclecticism – A Roman approach to philosophy that involved drawing on multiple schools rather than committing to one doctrine.

For other questions…

Contact

Supplemental Material

The following should (hopefully) help you wrap your mind around the schools of philosophy covered so far.

Platonism

Metaphysics:
Dualist metaphysics. Reality is divided into the world of changing material things and the eternal realm of the Forms.

Ethics:
The Good is the ultimate Form. Moral development involves recollection of eternal truths and ascent of the soul.

Emotion:
Emotions are unruly and associated with the lower parts of the soul. They must be ruled by reason.

Civic Responsibility:
Ideal republic ruled by philosopher-kings. The state is responsible for moral education and enforcing harmony.

Gender Roles:
Radical for its time: men and women can be guardians, as gender is irrelevant to rational capacity.

External Goods:
True happiness is not dependent on external goods; worldly success is inferior to contemplation of the Forms.

Human Flourishing:
Achieved through philosophical contemplation and governance by reason; escape from the cave of illusion.

Aristotelianism (Peripatetics)

Metaphysics:
Teleological naturalism. Everything has a purpose (telos) and form grounded in the natural world.

Ethics:
Eudaimonia (flourishing) is the highest good, achieved by practicing virtue in a life of rational activity.

Emotion:
Emotions are natural and not to be eradicated but moderated through virtue (e.g., the Golden Mean).

Civic Responsibility:
The good life is political. Citizens must contribute to the state and educate future generations.

Gender Roles:
Problematic. Women are seen as incomplete men with less rational authority; natural hierarchy supports male dominance.

External Goods:
Necessary for happiness: friends, health, wealth, beauty, etc., but they support rather than define virtue.

Human Flourishing:
A mix of virtue, rational activity, and some luck. Best achieved in a well-functioning polis.

Stoicism

Metaphysics:
Materialistic pantheism. The cosmos is a rational, living being governed by divine Logos.

Ethics:
Only virtue is good. Live in accordance with nature and reason. Accept fate (amor fati).

Emotion:
Passions are irrational judgments. Must be replaced with eupatheiai (healthy emotions aligned with reason).

Civic Responsibility:
Cosmopolitanism. All humans are citizens of the cosmos. Public service is virtuous.

Gender Roles:
Philosophically egalitarian. Women can be sages. Actual practice varied but often ahead of its time.

External Goods:
Indifferent (adiaphora). Preferred indifferents (e.g., health) can be pursued but don’t affect virtue.

Human Flourishing:
Eudaimonia through inner freedom, rationality, and alignment with the Logos. Practice of philosophy = therapy.

Epicureanism

Metaphysics:
Atomism. The world is composed of atoms and void. Gods exist but do not intervene.

Ethics:
Pleasure (ataraxia and aponia) is the highest good. Avoid pain, fear, and unnecessary desires.

Emotion:
Natural emotions are fine; disturbances caused by false beliefs must be eliminated.

Civic Responsibility:
Minimal. Avoid politics for peace of mind. Friendship is a better source of social connection.

Gender Roles:
Progressive in theory: the Garden included women. Gender egalitarianism emphasized, though not always practiced.

External Goods:
Valued only if they support peace and pleasure. Not essential to happiness.

Human Flourishing:
Tranquility through simple living, friendship, reflection, and freedom from anxiety about gods or death.

Cynicism

Metaphysics:
Anti-theoretical. Skeptical of metaphysics; focus is on how to live simply and naturally.

Ethics:
Live in accordance with nature. Reject convention, status, wealth, and social norms.

Emotion:
Self-control and shamelessness are key. Emotions must not enslave the soul.

Civic Responsibility:
Anti-political. Criticized society rather than tried to reform it. Often lived as social gadflies.

Gender Roles:
Radically egalitarian. Challenged social norms, including marriage and property.

External Goods:
Scorned. Only virtue is necessary. External goods are distractions.

Human Flourishing:
Achieved through self-sufficiency, endurance, and liberation from social expectations.

Academic Skepticism (e.g., Cicero)

Metaphysics:
Radical doubt. Denial of certainty in metaphysical claims. Focus on probability and open-mindedness.

Ethics:
Ethics without certainty. Practice virtue based on the most probable account of the good.

Emotion:
Debated. Emotions can be managed through rational reflection and argumentation.

Civic Responsibility:
Important. Engaged in Roman politics while maintaining philosophical detachment.

Gender Roles:
Varied; Cicero’s own writings don’t focus much here, though Stoic influence promotes equality.

External Goods:
Good if used wisely, but not required for inner peace. Tranquility more important than possessions.

Human Flourishing:
Tranquility and moral integrity through probabilistic reasoning, intellectual humility, and civic engagement.

Pyrrhonian Skepticism

Metaphysics:
Epoché (suspension of judgment) about all metaphysical claims. We cannot know the nature of reality.

Ethics:
Ataraxia (peace of mind) comes from not holding beliefs. Ethics is lived through practice, not dogma.

Emotion:
Tranquility arises by avoiding belief-based emotional disturbances.

Civic Responsibility:
Live by custom and habit. No need to reject society—just refrain from belief.

Gender Roles:
Not explicitly addressed. Practice-based rather than theory-based; possible inclusivity.

External Goods:
Neither affirmed nor denied. Judgments about their value are suspended.

Human Flourishing:
Achieved by freeing oneself from the anxiety caused by belief and dogma; living by appearances.

Reading List

Peter Thonemann, The Hellenistic Age: A Very Short Introduction

Garrett G. Fagan, The Lure of the Arena: Social Psychology and the Crowd at the Roman Games

Philip Matyszak, Greece Against Rome: The Fall of the Hellenistic Kingdoms 250-31 BC

Myke Cole, Legion versus Phalanx: The Epic Struggle for Infantry Supremacy in the Ancient World

Charles Freeman, A New History of Early Christianity

Pierre Hadot, Philosophy As A Way of Life

Jed W. Atkins & Thomas Bénatouïl (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Cicero's Philosophy

Anthony Everitt, Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician

Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome

Mary Beard, Emperor of Rome: Ruling the Ancient Roman World

Lesson 3.1: Pax (Pt. I)