Unit III
IN THIS LESSON
Ante orthodoxiam, chaos erat.
In the centuries after Jesus, Christian thinkers, mystics, and radicals offered wildly different visions of who Jesus was, what salvation meant, and whether the material world was a divine creation—or a cosmic mistake.
Topics Discussed:
Competing early Christian views on Jesus’ divinity and humanity, including Adoptionism, Docetism, and Arianism
How dualistic worldviews and secret knowledge shaped Gnostic and Manichaean heresies
The political pressures behind the Church’s drive to define orthodoxy—especially under Constantine
The evolving doctrine of the afterlife, from Sheol and resurrection to Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory
Augustine’s role in responding to heresies like Donatism and Pelagianism
Why “heretics” were often more numerous—and sometimes more philosophically interesting—than their orthodox opponents
For lesson transcripts, go to zencastr.com/The-Luxury-of-Virtue.
Focus Questions
Why did early Christian communities develop such radically different views of Jesus—and what does this suggest about the nature of religious authority in the first few centuries?
How did Greek philosophical ideas, especially Platonism and dualism, shape early Christian heresies like Valentinianism and Marcionism? In particular, what role did ideas about the body, the soul, and the material world play?
What political and social factors led the Roman Empire to begin enforcing orthodoxy? How did Constantine’s involvement transform theological disagreement into a matter of imperial stability?
How did early debates about Jesus' nature reflect deeper concerns about salvation, authority, and the meaning of suffering? (Hint: Think about why it mattered whether Jesus was truly human, and what implications that had for doctrines like resurrection and atonement.)
Why were heresies like Donatism and Pelagianism seen as dangerous, even though they focused more on ethical behavior than theology? What do these controversies reveal about the Church’s need to regulate grace, sin, and institutional power?
How do the diverse early views of the afterlife—from Sheol to universal reconciliation—challenge the idea of a single, fixed Christian doctrine? What does the historical development of Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory suggest about how theological ideas evolve over time?
Glossary
Philosophical & Theological Concepts
Dualism —The belief in two fundamentally opposed realities—typically spirit vs. matter or good vs. evil. Prominent in Gnosticism and Manichaeism.
Gnosis — Secret, esoteric knowledge believed to bring salvation. Central to many Gnostic systems.
Christology — The study of the nature and identity of Jesus Christ. Early Christians debated whether Jesus was human, divine, both, or something in between.
Apocalypticism — A worldview expecting imminent divine intervention to defeat evil and establish cosmic justice. Central to early Christianity and Jewish thought in times of crisis.
Hypostatic Union — The orthodox doctrine that Jesus is both fully God and fully human in one person. Formally affirmed at the Council of Chalcedon (451 CE).
Key Figures
Paul of Tarsus — A Jewish Pharisee turned apostle who interpreted Jesus’ death and resurrection in light of apocalyptic and Hellenistic ideas. His letters form a large part of the New Testament.
Valentinus — An early Christian teacher whose dualistic system saw the material world as a cosmic mistake. Argued that Jesus only seemed human.
Marcion — Rejected the Hebrew Bible and taught that the God of Jesus was not the God of the Jews. Edited his own version of the New Testament.
Origen — A highly influential Christian thinker who believed in universal salvation—including for the devil. Later declared heretical.
Augustine of Hippo — A former Manichaean who became the architect of Western Christian theology. Opposed multiple heresies and shaped doctrines of grace, sin, and salvation.
Major Heresies
Marcionism — Taught that the Jewish God was not the true God and that Jesus revealed a higher deity. Denied Jesus' humanity.
Valentinianism — A Gnostic sect that saw the material world as evil. Believed salvation came through secret knowledge and that Jesus was never truly human.
Adoptionism (Ebionism) — Taught that Jesus was a mere man “adopted” as God's son at baptism or resurrection. Emphasized Jewish law.
Docetism — Belief that Jesus only seemed to be human; his body was an illusion.
Arianism — Taught that Jesus was divine but not eternal—God's first creation. Rejected the co-equality of Father and Son.
Manichaeism — A global dualist religion teaching that the world is a battleground between light and darkness. Influenced by Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
Donatism — Argued that sacraments are invalid if administered by morally impure priests.
Pelagianism — Denied original sin and emphasized human free will. Taught that people could achieve salvation without divine grace.
Important Councils
Council of Nicaea (325 CE) — Affirmed the full divinity of Jesus and condemned Arianism. Produced the Nicene Creed.
Council of Carthage (418 CE) — Condemned Pelagianism and affirmed the necessity of divine grace.
Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) — Defined the Hypostatic Union. Declared that Jesus is fully divine and fully human.
Words You Might Not Know
Apocalypse — Literally means "revelation." In religious contexts, it refers to visions of the end of the world and divine judgment.
Sheol — A Hebrew term for the shadowy realm of the dead. In early Jewish thought, it was not a place of punishment, just the grave.
Purgatory — A temporary state of purification after death for those not entirely pure but not damned. Fully developed in Western Christianity.
Docetism — From Greek dokein, meaning "to seem." The belief that Jesus only appeared to be human.
Psilanthropism — The belief that Jesus was merely human and not divine.
Ex opere operato — Latin for "by the work worked"—the idea that sacraments are valid regardless of the moral character of the minister (key in the Donatist controversy).
Evolution of Afterlife Beliefs
Early Hebrew Thought — Death meant Sheol—oblivion, not judgment.
Apocalyptic Judaism — Introduced resurrection and final judgment as a response to injustice in this world.
Hellenistic Influence — Greek philosophy (especially Platonism) added the idea of the soul’s immortality and separation from the body.
Christian Developments — Early Christians combined apocalyptic hope with Greek dualism, eventually imagining Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory as places for individual souls.
Origen’s Universalism — All beings, even the devil, will eventually return to God. This merciful vision was later condemned as heresy.
For other questions…
Ideas from the Near East
In his thought-provoking work The Prince of Darkness, historian Jeffrey Burton Russell traces the evolution of the devil across a wide range of cultures and belief systems. In Chapter 2, he argues that the idea of evil—at least as a distinct and independent force—did not always exist. Early deities often embodied a mix of both creative and destructive traits. But when cultures clashed and pantheons collided, something curious often happened: the gods of the defeated group were not just rejected—they were demonized. These once-revered figures were recast as evil spirits, tempters, or enemies of the gods.
Still, these demonized beings were usually portrayed as subservient to the dominant deity, more like unruly agents of disorder than embodiments of cosmic opposition. That changed with the rise of Zoroastrianism, the ancient Persian religion founded by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra).
Zoroastrianism introduced a truly dualistic worldview: one in which Ahura Mazda, the supreme god of light and truth, was locked in eternal conflict with Angra Mainyu (later Ahriman), the principle of darkness and deceit. Here, for the first time, we find a clear-cut figure representing evil as an independent, opposing force—an early blueprint for what would later become the Christian devil.
Russell suggests that this radical dualism deeply influenced later Jewish and Christian thought, especially during and after the Babylonian exile, when Jewish communities came into contact with Persian religion and philosophy. The Christian Satan, far from being a simple biblical figure, may have inherited much of his shape and symbolism from this much older theological struggle between light and dark, order and chaos.
Supplemental Material
The following should (hopefully) help you wrap your mind around the evolution of ideas in this lesson.
| Heresy | View of Jesus | View of the World | Key Beliefs | Why Condemned |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marcionism | Fully divine, not human; son of a higher god | Material world created by lesser Jewish god (Yahweh) | Two gods; rejected Hebrew Bible; Jesus was savior of love | Denied Jesus' humanity; rejected Jewish scripture |
| Valentinianism | Apparent human form only; a divine emissary from a higher realm | Material world is a flawed creation; escape through gnosis | Secret knowledge brings salvation; Sophia's fall created Yahweh | Denied Jesus' humanity; radical dualism; secret knowledge |
| Adoptionism | Human adopted as God's son at baptism or resurrection | Affirmed material world (as Jewish Christians) | Jesus chosen and elevated by God; Torah still valid | Denied Jesus’ divinity; undermined unity of Old and New Testaments |
| Docetism | Only appeared human; fully divine with no real body | Material world is illusory or corrupt | Christ only appeared to suffer and die | Denied incarnation and real suffering; threatened resurrection theology |
| Arianism | First creation of God; divine but not eternal or equal to the Father | World is created by God, but Christ is subordinate | Jesus was divine but created in time; not co-eternal | Denied equality and co-eternity of Christ with the Father |
| Manichaeism | Dualistic Christ as a liberator of light from matter | World is a prison of darkness; matter is evil | Cosmic battle of Light vs. Darkness; strict asceticism | Denied the goodness of creation; contradicted Genesis |
| Donatism | No unique Christology; focused on Church purity | World requires moral purity for Church legitimacy | Sacraments valid only if priest is pure | Undermined authority of sacraments; divisive to Church |
| Pelagianism | Moral teacher; salvation achieved through effort, not divinity | World is neutral; humans are born innocent | Salvation through free will and moral effort alone | Denied original sin and grace; threatened necessity of salvation through Christ |
| Period (Approx. Date) | Afterlife Concept | Reward | Punishment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early Hebrew Bible (c. 1200–600 BCE) | None / Sheol | Long life / legacy | Early death / oblivion |
| Post-Exile Judaism (c. 500–200 BCE) | Resurrection at end times | Life in God’s kingdom on earth | Annihilation |
| Apocalypticism (c. 200 BCE–100 CE) | Cosmic battle + judgment | Vindication of the righteous | Destruction of the wicked |
| Hellenistic Judaism / Early Christianity (c. 100 BCE–200 CE) | Soul + resurrection | Heaven | Hell (eternal or annihilation) |
| Post-apostolic Christianity (c. 200–400 CE) | Soul judged after death | Heaven (immediate or post-purgatory) | Eternal Hell or purgatory |
| Origen (deemed heretical later) (c. 200–250 CE) | Universal reconciliation | All return to God | Temporary punishment |
This table traces the evolving concepts of the afterlife in ancient Jewish and early Christian thought, from the early Hebrew Bible’s emphasis on legacy and Sheol, to later apocalyptic, Christian, and even heretical visions of heaven, hell, judgment, and reconciliation. It highlights how ideas of divine reward and punishment shifted in response to historical crises, philosophical developments, and theological reinterpretations. Rows are color-coded by tradition: blue for Jewish systems, gold for Christian developments, and red for later heretical views.
Further Reading
Christine Hayes, What’s Divine About Divine Law?: Early Perspectives
Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew
Bart D. Ehrman, How Jesus Became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee
Bart D. Ehrman, Heaven and Hell: A History of the Afterlife
Charles Freeman, A New History of Early Christianity
Charles Freeman, The Closing of the Western Mind
Robert Wright, The Evolution of God
Francesca Stavrakopoulou, God: An Anatomy
Bernard Brandon Scott, Erin Vearncombe, and Hal Taussig, After Jesus, Before Christianity: A Historical Exploration of the First Two Centuries of Jesus Movements
Keith Yandell, Philosophy of Religion: A Contemporary Introduction
Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels
Helen De Cruz and Johan De Smedt, A Natural History of Natural Theology: The Cognitive Science of Theology and Philosophy of Religion
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Prince of Darkness: Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History
Evagrius of Pontus, Talking Back: A Monastic Handbook for Combating Demons
Catherine Nixey, The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World
Walter Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity
Paula Fredriksen, When Christian’s were Jews: The First Generation
Paula Fredriksen, Sin: The Early History of an Idea
Related Reading
David Eagleman, Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain
Patrick McNamara (Ed.), The Cognitive Neuroscience of Religious Experience (2e)
Andrew Newberg, Neurotheology: How Science Can Enlighten Us About Spirituality
(Note: Some of the content in these books relates to the comments I made about temporal lobe epilepsy and religious visions.)