Unit III
IN THIS LESSON
In a cruel Roman world, Stoicism offered its students—including former slaves, senators, and emperors alike—a way to stand firm amid chaos, to cultivate peace in the storm, and to live well regardless of what fate delivered.
Topics discussed:
Stoicism as Psychological Training:
Stoic ethics is not a list of rules, but a discipline of mind. It teaches that emotional disturbances arise from irrational judgments, and that inner peace (euthymia) is achieved through rational mastery of impressions.The Dichotomy of Control:
Only our judgments are truly “up to us.” All else—fortune, reputation, others’ behavior—lies beyond our power and should be met with acceptance. This insight lies at the heart of Stoic freedom.The Stoic Toolkit:
Practices like the reserve clause, morning and evening meditation, and the memorization of Stoic principles help one build a stable inner citadel of the mind—resistant to the chaos of the world.
For lesson transcripts, go to zencastr.com/The-Luxury-of-Virtue.
Focus Questions
What do the Stoics mean by the “dichotomy of control,” and why is it central to their ethical system? How might this principle apply to situations in your own life?
How do Stoics interpret emotions and emotional disturbances? What is the role of “assent” in the generation (or avoidance) of irrational emotions?
What practices did Stoics use to cultivate virtue and mental resilience? Discuss the function of at least two techniques, such as the morning meditation, the reserve clause, or the premeditation of evils.
What is the purpose of contemplating the sage in Stoic ethics? How does this relate to the broader philosophical approach of virtue ethics? (Hint: See the Sidebar below.)
In what ways does Stoicism offer a therapeutic or psychological approach to well-being?
How did Stoics like Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus, and Seneca recommend dealing with anger, criticism, or failure? What do their responses suggest about the Stoic view of moral progress?
Glossary
Philosophical Concepts
Stoicism – A Greco-Roman philosophy focused on virtue, rational control, and aligning life with nature through disciplined reasoning and emotional resilience.
Eudaemonia – Flourishing or well-being; the highest good in Stoicism, attained through virtue and inner peace.
Virtue Ethics – A moral framework that emphasizes developing moral character rather than following rules or maximizing outcomes.
Cataleptic Impressions – Clear, reliable perceptions that Stoics believed worthy of assent; contrasted with misleading or irrational impressions.
Assent – The act of mentally accepting an impression as true or valid; central to Stoic ethics.
Emotional Disturbance – The irrational judgments and desires that arise when we assent to false impressions.
Prosochē – Stoic mindfulness or continual attention to one’s impressions, judgments, and inner state.
Pneuma – The divine rational spirit or breath believed to animate all rational beings.
Eupatheiai – Rational, virtuous emotions (e.g., joy, caution, and wishing) that replace irrational passions.
Key Figures
Epictetus – Former slave and Stoic teacher whose practical teachings focused on discipline and self-governance.
Seneca – Roman philosopher and statesman known for exploring the inner life and offering techniques for managing anger and grief.
Marcus Aurelius – Stoic emperor of Rome whose Meditations is a personal manual of moral and mental training.
Musonius Rufus – Stoic philosopher exiled for his pro-republic views; advocated for equality and simple living.
For other questions…
Supplemental Material
The following includes the practices discussed in the lesson, as well as some bonus practices.
The Dichotomy of Control
Distinguish between what is within your control and what is not. Focus your energy only on what lies within your power—your own thoughts, judgments, and actions. Release concern over outcomes, opinions, or external events. This mental sorting builds composure and clarity.
The Reserve Clause (Fate Willing)
Mentally append a “fate permitting” clause to your intentions: “I will do my best—if nothing prevents me.” This helps you strive with purpose while remaining mentally flexible, accepting outcomes with equanimity.
Prospective Meditation (Morning Reflection)
Each morning, take a few minutes to mentally prepare for the day. Anticipate possible challenges, difficulties, and irritations. By expecting adversity, you weaken its power over you when it arises and can face it with greater poise.
Retrospective Meditation (Evening Review)
At the end of the day, review how you acted, thought, and responded to events. What did you do well? Where did you fail? What can you do better tomorrow? This reflection fosters self-awareness, accountability, and gradual improvement.
Cognitive Labeling
When a strong emotion arises, name it before reacting. “This is anger.” “This is fear.” Labeling interrupts the automatic flow of judgment and gives you a chance to evaluate the impression rationally.
Depreciation by Analysis
Break down tempting pleasures or fears into their basic parts. A luxurious meal is just “dead fish and fermented grapes,” said Marcus Aurelius. This reduces emotional intensity and fosters detachment.
View from Above
Imagine viewing your life from a high vantage point, like a bird’s eye view or even from space. See yourself as part of a vast cosmos. This visualization diminishes ego, softens personal worries, and instills humility and perspective.
The Stoic Sage Visualization
Consider how an ideal Stoic—someone perfectly rational and virtuous—would handle a situation you're facing. Use this imaginary guide as a model for your own decisions and behavior.
Premeditatio Malorum (Anticipation of Misfortune)
Rehearse possible misfortunes before they occur. Think through what could go wrong and how you would handle it with courage and reason. This reduces anxiety and builds inner preparedness.
Memento Mori (Remember You Must Die)
Contemplate your mortality regularly. Far from being morbid, this practice helps you prioritize what matters, cherish the present, and live more intentionally.
Guard What Is Your Own
Train your attention to stay focused on your values, not external rewards like applause, fame, or validation. Live in alignment with your principles, regardless of public opinion or outcome.
Mantras and Dogmata
Memorize short sayings that encapsulate Stoic wisdom (e.g., “It’s not things that upset us, but our judgments about them”). Repeat them regularly to internalize their message and access them in times of stress.
Self-Distancing
When you feel overwhelmed, refer to yourself in the third person or imagine you’re advising a friend. This creates emotional distance and clearer thinking.
Stoic Journaling
Write about your thoughts, struggles, and philosophical insights. Use this as a tool for self-examination and the cultivation of virtue. Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations is the model.
Environmental Check
Notice what surroundings, media, or people influence your thinking and behavior. Create an environment that supports tranquility and self-discipline.
Modeling and Mentorship
Surround yourself with people who live ethically and exemplify Stoic values. Observe and learn from them. If no such person is present, imagine one and strive to live under their gaze.
Voluntary Discomfort
Practice small acts of discomfort to build resilience and temper desire. This could be cold showers, fasting, or digital detoxes. The point is not pain, but strengthening your tolerance and reducing dependence on comfort.
Gratitude Practice
Each day, note things you’re grateful for—not because they are guaranteed, but because they are fleeting. Gratitude turns attention away from desire and toward appreciation.
The Pause (Impression Audit)
When confronted with a strong impression, pause. Ask: “Is this true?” “Is this helpful?” “Is this within my control?” This moment of inquiry can prevent you from being swept away by reaction.
Neutral Description
Practice describing events without value judgments. Instead of “he insulted me,” say “he said these words.” Instead of “this is a disaster,” say “this happened.” This strips events of their emotional charge and allows for clearer reasoning.
On
Virtue Ethics
Many students who’ve taken a course on ethics may be familiar with an approach to morality called virtue ethics. Although we haven’t used that label much in this course, we’ve been working within that framework—especially in this lesson, where we explored the notion of the Stoic sage.
A Stoic sage is someone who has fully internalized and mastered Stoic ideals. These figures are mostly hypothetical—no one is expected to be a sage—but ancient Stoics found it incredibly useful to contemplate the sage. By imagining how such a person might respond to a challenge, they could gain insight into how to act wisely in their own lives. Suppose, for example, a practicing Stoic is struggling to interact with someone they find irritating but must deal with regularly. By asking themselves how a sage might approach that relationship, they could develop strategies for engaging more calmly, constructively, and without emotional disturbance.
This technique reflects the essence of virtue ethics, an ethical approach that doesn’t rely on fixed rules or calculations like “maximize happiness.” Instead, it holds that the right action is what a virtuous person—someone with a finely developed moral character—would do in a given situation. In this framework, moral exemplars like the sage serve as guides. They don’t offer a formula; rather, they embody a kind of moral vision that the rest of us can learn from and approximate.
As we’ve discussed before, virtue was often seen by the ancients as the pathway to eudaemonia—a deep, lasting form of happiness or flourishing. So, by trying to act as the sage would, we’re not just practicing virtue; we’re also steadily moving toward a well-lived life.
Reading List
Donald Robertson, The Philosophy of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy: Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy
Brad Inwood (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics
John M. Cooper, Pursuits of Wisdom: Six Ways of Life in Ancient Philosophy from Socrates to Plotinus
Julia Annas, The Morality of Happiness
Donald Robertson, How to Think Like A Roman Emperor
Donald Robertson, Marcus Aurelius: The Stoic Emperor
William B. Irvine, A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy
Pierre Hadot, The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius
Matthew McKay and Patrick Fanning, Self-Esteem: A Proven Program of Cognitive Techniques for Assessing, Improving, and Maintaining Your Self-Esteem
Related Reading
V. S. Ramachandran, The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human
Michael S. Gazzaniga, Who's in Charge?: Free Will and the Science of the Brain
Further Reading
Epictetus, Encheiridion
Seneca, On Anger